Research Article |
Corresponding author: Andreas Müller ( andreas.mueller@usys.ethz.ch ) Academic editor: Michael Ohl
© 2021 Andreas Müller, Martin K. Obrist.
This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY 4.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.
Citation:
Müller A, Obrist MK (2021) Simultaneous percussion by the larvae of a stem-nesting solitary bee – a collaborative defence strategy against parasitoid wasps? Journal of Hymenoptera Research 81: 143-164. https://doi.org/10.3897/jhr.81.61067
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Disturbance sounds to deter antagonists are widespread among insects but have never been recorded for the larvae of bees. Here, we report on the production of disturbance sounds by the postdefecating larva (“prepupa”) of the Palaearctic osmiine bee Hoplitis (Alcidamea) tridentata, which constructs linear series of brood cells in excavated burrows in pithy plant stems. Upon disturbance, the prepupa produces two types of sounds, one of which can be heard up to a distance of 2–3 m (“stroking sounds”), whereas the other is scarcely audible by bare ear (“tapping sounds”). To produce the stroking sounds, the prepupa rapidly pulls a horseshoe-shaped callosity around the anus one to five times in quick succession over the cocoon wall before it starts to produce tapping sounds by knocking a triangularly shaped callosity on the clypeus against the cocoon wall in long uninterrupted series of one to four knocks per second. Sound analysis revealed that the stroking sounds consist of several syllables, which are very similar to the single syllables of the tapping sounds: both last about 0.5 ms and spread over 40 kHz bandwidth from the audible far into the ultrasonic range. The production of stroking sounds by a prepupa induces other prepupae of the same nest to stroke and/or to tap resulting in a long-lasting and simultaneous albeit unsynchronized percussion by numerous prepupae along the whole nest stem. We hypothesize that these disturbance sounds serve an anti-antagonist function and that they have evolved to disturb the reflectance signals that parasitoid wasps use to localize concealed hosts during vibrational sounding.
Anthophila, Apiformes, chorusing behaviour, echolocation, Hoplocryptus, ichneumonid wasps, Megachilidae, Osmiini
Innumerable insects from many different taxa produce vibrational signals (“sounds” hereafter), which are propagated through air, water or solids and perceived by the recipients with tympanal ears or near-field receptors including sensory sensillae, subgenual organs or the antennae (
However, there are other insect sounds, which are not aimed at conspecifics, but which are assumed to be predominantly defensive since they are mainly produced when the insects are disturbed or attacked. In fact, experiments with a species each of ground beetles (Carabidae), tiger beetles (Cicindelidae), water scavenger beetles (Hydrophilidae), scolytid beetles (Scolytidae), mutillid wasps (Mutillidae), cicadas (Cicadidae) and butterflies (Nymphalidae) revealed that such disturbance sounds deter predators like spiders, predatory beetles, mice or birds (
Sound production for intra- or interspecific communication is rare in bees. It has been observed in the males of several solitary species during courtship and mating (
Given this rather silent nature of bees, it turned out as a surprise when we recently realized that the postdefecating larvae (“prepupae”) of the stem-nesting osmiine bee Hoplitis (Alcidamea) tridentata (Dufour and Perris) (Megachilidae) produce two different types of sounds upon disturbance, one of which is very quiet and difficult to hear by bare ear (“tapping sounds”), whereas the other is loud and well audible (“stroking sounds”). A literature survey revealed that the stroking sounds were already briefly mentioned by
In this study, we i) describe the prepupal disturbance sounds of Hoplitis tridentata, ii) identify the structures that produce them, iii) present the results of experiments on prepupal sound production, iv) examine the prepupae of other osmiine bee species for the presence of sound producing structures similar to those of H. tridentata and v) discuss possible functions of the disturbance sounds.
Hoplitis tridentata is a 10–12 mm long Palaearctic osmiine bee (Megachilidae, Osmiini), which has a vast distribution ranging from Europe and northern Africa eastwards to Western Siberia and Central Asia (
The nests of Hoplitis tridentata are attacked by numerous brood parasites (
To obtain nests of Hoplitis tridentata, trap nests were positioned in suitable habitats in northern Switzerland (Glattfelden/Zurich) and in southern Switzerland (Kalpetran/Valais) in spring 2020. Each trap nest consisted of a bundle of five dry Rubus stems of 50 cm length (Fig.
Acoustic recordings were performed with a Batlogger M (Elekon AG, Luzern, Switzerland). This device records wav-files with a sampling rate of 312.5 kHz with 16 bit sampling depth to a SD-memory card. Its microphone shows a relatively flat frequency response (±5 dB) from the low audio range up to 150 kHz. Recordings of 10.5 s duration were triggered manually at a distance of 2–20 cm between microphone and the nest stem.
The wav-files were analysed with the software Raven Pro 1.6.1 (
Intended as a first step towards a better understanding of the possible function of the prepupal sounds of Hoplitis tridentata, we performed ten experiments (Table
Experimental question | Experiment number | Experimental procedure | Nest type |
---|---|---|---|
Do the prepupae spontaneously produce sounds? | 1 | Eight nest bundles were auscultated for 15 min during sunny weather from a short distance. | i |
2 | Ten nests were auscultated together during one hour from a short distance. | ii | |
Which disturbances cause the prepupae to produce sounds? | 3 | Ten nests were individually subjected to a strong movement by turning the stems five times from a vertical to a horizontal position and back. | ii |
4 | Four nests were individually subjected to a strong increase in temperature to 40 °C by irradiating them with a 150 watts infrared heat lamp (Beurer IL21) for 90 sec from a distance of 20 cm. | iii | |
5 | Ten nests were individually subjected to vibration by holding a vibrating small tuning fork to the stem wall. | ii | |
6 | Exposed prepupae in five nests were individually subjected to light by illuminating them with a torch for two minutes from a distance of 2 cm. | iv | |
Is the production of stroking and tapping sounds by a single prepupa linked? | 7 | In five nests, sound production by the exposed prepupa was recorded after it was stimulated to produce stroking sounds by carefully denting its cocoon wall with a stick. | iv |
8 | In ten nests, the duration of the tapping sounds was recorded after the nests were individually turned five times from a vertical to a horizontal position and back. | ii | |
Do the sounds produced by a prepupa trigger sound production by other prepupae within the same nest? | 9 | In five well-fixed nests, the exposed prepupa was stimulated to produce stroking sounds by carefully denting its cocoon wall with a stick, before the nests were auscultated for stroking and tapping sounds of other prepupae. | iv |
10 | In five nests the exposed prepupa was stimulated to produce tapping sounds by illuminating it with a torch, before the nests were auscultated for stroking and tapping sounds of other prepupae. | iv |
Hoplitis tridentata 1 nest entrance in a dead stem of Verbascum 2 female entering her nest at the broken tip of a dead stem of Verbascum (photo A. Krebs) 3 linear series of brood cells within a dead stem of Rubus each containing a prepupa inside the cocoon 4 trapnest bundle consisting of five 50 cm long stems of Rubus 5 experimental nest stem with exposed brood cell.
To address the question whether the prepupae of other osmiine bees are equipped with similar sound producing structures like Hoplitis tridentata, we examined the prepupae of the following eleven Central European species belonging to four genera and ten subgenera obtained from nests collected by the first author in 2020 and by P. Bogusch in the frame of studies on reed gall inhabiting aculeate Hymenoptera (
The prepupae of Hoplitis tridentata produce two types of sounds, which considerably differ in their intensity. In unopened nest stems and under complete silence, the “tapping sounds” are audible by bare ear only within 10–20 cm (Suppl. material
The prepupae produce the sounds with two projecting body callosities, which are localized on the clypeus and around the anus (Figs
Hoplitis tridentata 6 prepupa with a triangularly shaped white callosity on the clypeus and a horseshoe-shaped white callosity around the anus, which both are used for sound production 7 clypeal callosity in profile distinctly projecting over the antennae (photo J. Sommerhalder) 8 anal callosity (photo J. Sommerhalder).
In larvae that have either started to spin their cocoon or just have finished cocoon construction, the callosities have not yet reached their final functional state: compared with the final state, the clypeal callosity is distinctly softer albeit already white and projecting, while the anal callosity is distinctly softer, still of the same colour as the surrounding cuticle and less projecting. Thus, the callosities seem to reach their functional state only after the prepupae have finalized the cocoon.
The prepupae produce the tapping sounds by knocking the clypeal callosity against the cocoon wall (Fig.
Except for small wart-like protuberances, the inner cocoon wall of Hoplitis tridentata lacks special projections such as ridges or teeth, which might help in producing or amplifying the sounds when the prepupae move their anal callosity over the cocoon wall. The wart-like protuberances are unlikely to participate in sound production as their density considerably varies between the cocoons of different individuals, as they are not confined to defined zones of the inner cocoon surface and as similar protuberances also occur in the cocoons of other osmiine bee species (A. Müller, unpublished data). Nevertheless, the cocoon wall might play an important role in sound production going well beyond its function as a mere abutment for the sound producing structures. In fact, even a slight touch of the cocoon wall by the experimenter leads to a crackling sound readily audible both to the unaided ear and by a bat detector set to the ultrasonic range. It would be worthwile to compare the physical and morphological properties of the cocoon of H. tridentata with those of related H. (Alcidamea) species, which do not produce sounds. Such a comparison, however, is beyond the scope of this study.
The tapping sounds are extremely brief lasting less than 1 ms and consist of a single syllable (Table
Basic temporal and spectral characteristics of the prepupal sounds of Hoplitis tridentata. Mean values are given with standard deviation in brackets. In total, 2592 tapping sounds and 148 stroking sounds were measured.
Sound characteristics | Tapping sounds | Stroking sounds |
---|---|---|
Duration | 0.63 (±0.48) ms | 40.6 (±16.0) ms |
Number of syllables | 1 | 15.3 (± 7.2) |
Interval between syllables | – | 2.8 (±0.64) ms |
Duration of syllable | 0.63 (±0.48) ms | 0.48 (±0.33) ms |
Duration of syllable (90% energy sum) | 0.46 (±0.30) kHz | 0.38 (±0.24) kHz |
Lower frequency (5% energy sum) | 11.91 (±4.60) kHz | 12.07 (±3.70) kHz |
Peak frequency (peak energy) | 23.94 (±9.56) kHz | 24.44 (±8.13) kHz |
Upper frequency (95% energy sum) | 54.31 (±13.16) kHz | 56.22 (±11.70) kHz |
Bandwidth of syllable (90% energy sum) | 42.39 (±12.24) kHz | 44.15 (±11.64) kHz |
The tapping sounds and the single syllables of the stroking sounds show very similar temporal and spectral characteristics (Table
Spontaneous prepupal sounds were absent (experiment 1) or very rare with 0.4 stroking and 0.15 tapping sound events per stem and hour (experiment 2). Movement of the stem and increase in temperature (experiments 3 and 4) stimulated prepupal sounds in every trial (n = 20 and n = 8, respectively), all of which were both stroking and tapping sound events. Vibration of the stem (experiment 5) stimulated prepupal sounds in 95% of the trials (n = 20), of which 32% were both stroking and tapping sound events and 68% only tapping sound events. Exposure to light (experiment 6) stimulated prepupal sounds in 87% of all trials (n = 15), of which 8% were both stroking and tapping sound events and 92% only tapping sound events. Stimulated stroking sounds (experiment 7) were followed by tapping sounds by the same prepupa in every trial (n = 15). Tapping sound events after the end of a disturbance (experiment 8) lasted on average 21.1 min and ranged from 8.5 min to 36.3 min (n = 10). Stimulated stroking sounds (experiment 9) triggered sound production by other prepupae within the nest in 93% of the trials (n = 15), of which 71% were both stroking and tapping sound events, 22% only tapping sound events and 7% only stroking sound events. Stimulated tapping sounds (experiment 10) never triggered sound production by other prepupae within the nest (n = 15). In summary, the experiments revealed that i) the prepupae do not or only exceptionally produce sounds spontaneously, ii) the disturbances stimulating sound production are rather unspecific encompassing stem movement and vibration, increase in temperature, exposure to light and denting of the cocoon wall, iii) the tapping sounds and the stroking sounds appear to represent two levels of escalation with the former being produced after a weak disturbance but the latter only after a strong disturbance, iv) the stroking sounds are followed by extended periods of tapping sounds after the disturbance has ended, whereas the stroking sounds stop within 10–15 sec to maximally 30 sec after the end of the disturbance, and v) the stroking sounds trigger sound production by other prepupae of the same nest, which is not the case for the tapping sounds.
The prepupae of eleven Central European osmiine bee species belonging to four genera and ten subgenera (see Methods section) all lacked clypeal and anal callosities. The descriptions of osmiine bee prepupae in the literature either did not suggest the presence of sound producing structures or proved to be insufficient for a proper assessment (Suppl. material
The finding that the prepupae of Hoplitis tridentata produce well audible sounds is the first record of sound production in larvae of bees and – to the best of our knowledge – also of Hymenoptera. These prepupal sounds are almost exclusively produced after disturbance, which qualifies them as typical disturbance sounds (
The spectrum of potential antagonists affecting Hoplitis tridentata in the prepupal stage encompasses two main groups, i.e. vertebrate predators such as birds, which peck open the stems and devour the prepupae, and insect brood parasites such as parasitoid wasps, which insert the eggs through the stem wall and whose larvae feed on the prepupal bodies. These two groups of antagonists perceive vibrational signals differently, i.e. the predators mainly as air-born sounds and the parasites probably exclusively as substrate-born vibrations. As the sounds produced by the prepupae of H. tridentata are both air-borne and substrate-borne, the quality of the prepupal sounds does not allow us to decide whether the sounds have evolved against vertebrate predators or insect brood parasites. Similarly, the disturbances that stimulated prepupal sound production in the experiments hardly allow any conclusions on the natural triggers of the sounds and suggest that the prepupae react rather unspecifically to any disturbance whether naturally occurring or not. As discussed below, we nevertheless hypothesize that the intended recipients of the prepupal sounds are insect brood parasites, that the sounds act as substrate-born vibrations, and that the sounds are triggered by the presence of parasites on the nest stem.
Among the three potential mechanisms which might underlie the deterrent effect of disturbance sounds (see Introduction section), acoustic aposematism is highly unlikely to act in Hoplitis tridentata because the prepupae are unlikely to be toxic or in any other way dangerous for vertebrate predators and insect brood parasites. It appears also to be improbable that the disturbance sounds have evolved to startle a predator or parasite because the prepupae cannot take advantage of the attacker’s short-term confusion for escape as they are enclosed within their cocoons; furthermore, startling vertebrate predators by sound seems to be counteradaptive as the predators might learn to use the sounds to localize nests after they have found that the prepupae are harmless. Instead, we hypothesize that sound production in H. tridentata has evolved to render it difficult for parasitoid wasps with a peculiar host-searching strategy to precisely localize the prepupae within the plant stem.
Parasitoid wasps usually localize hidden hosts by scent or vibrations caused by host movement and feeding (
There are indeed two ichneumonid species of the genus Hoplocryptus (Cryptinae) among the known wasp parasitoids of Hoplitis tridentata (see Bee species section), which possess strongly modified antennal tips in the females (
The prepupae of Hoplitis tridentata produce two types of sounds, which differ in several characteristics. The tapping sounds, which are produced by knocking the clypeal callosity against the cocoon wall, are quiet and require little energy; they are readily induced by a weak disturbance and continued long beyond the end of the disturbance, and they do not trigger sound production by other prepupae. In contrast, the stroking sounds, which are produced by moving the anal callosity over the cocoon wall, are loud and require much energy; they are induced only after a strong disturbance and stop shortly after the disturbance has ended, and they trigger sound production by other prepupae. These different characteristics suggest that the two types of sounds have different functions, which however are most probably linked and work in combination. We envisage the following scenario for the two sounds to work together: when one prepupa perceives the presence of a parasitoid wasp near its cell due for example to vibrations caused by the drumming wasp antennae or by the insertion of the wasp ovipositor, it starts to stroke; the vibrations elicited by this stroking spread through the stem and alert other prepupae, which immediately begin to stroke and/or tap, eventually resulting in a continuing percussion by numerous prepupae along the whole nest stem. Under this scenario, the main function of the tapping sounds is to impair host location by echolocating parasitoid wasps, whereas the main function of the stroking sounds is to induce sound production by alerting other nest inhabitants. As the nest inhabitants are siblings, the simultaneous percussion by the prepupae of H. tridentata can be regarded as an extraordinary form of collaboration, which contributes to the inclusive fitness of all individuals within the nest.
The production of sounds by the larvae of bees as reported in this study for the stem-nesting osmiine bee Hoplitis tridentata is a new facet in the fascinating biology of solitary bees as is the suspected collaboration against antagonists between siblings inhabiting the same nest. While there is little doubt that the prepupal sounds of H. tridentata serve an anti-antagonist function, the assumption that they have evolved to disturb host location by echolocating wasp parasitoids is for now speculative and has to be tested experimentally.
P. Bogusch made prepupae of Hoplitis leucomelana available for study. G. Delvare and H. Baur informed us about the biology of parasitoid wasps. J. Rozen and J. Cane provided information on prepupae and nests of Nearctic Hoplitis (Alcidamea) species. J. Sommerhalder made close-up photographs of the prepupal sound producing organs. A. Krebs provided a photo of a Hoplitis tridentata female. Comments by the two reviewers J. Cane and J. Neff substantially improved the manuscript.
Tapping sounds of a single prepupa of Hoplitis tridentata
Data type: multimedia
Explanation note: The sounds were recorded with a batlogger in a distance of 2 cm from the opened nest stem.
Four stroking sounds followed by tapping sounds of a single prepupa of Hoplitis tridentata
Data type: multimedia
Explanation note: The sounds were recorded with a batlogger in a distance of 2 cm from the opened nest stem.
One stroking sound of a single prepupa of Hoplitis tridentata slowed down ten times
Data type: multimedia
Explanation note: The sound was recorded with a batlogger in a distance of 20 cm from the opened nest stem.
Simultaneous percussion by several tapping prepupae of Hoplitis tridentata inhabiting the same nest
Data type: multimedia
Explanation note: The sounds were recorded with a batlogger in a distance of 20 cm from the opened nest stem.
Two prepupae of Hoplitis tridentata producing tapping sounds
Data type: multimedia
Explanation note: Two prepupae of Hoplitis tridentata producing tapping sounds by continuously knocking the clypeal callosity against the cocoon wall; the right brood cell contains a cocoon of Sapyga quinquepunctata.
Prepupa of Hoplitis tridentata producing stroking sounds
Data type: multimedia
Explanation note: Prepupa of Hoplitis tridentata (left brood cell) producing stroking sounds by rapidly moving the anal callosity five times in quick succession over the cocoon wall; note that the prepupa in the middle brood cell is tapping; the right brood cell contains a cocoon of Sapyga quinquepunctata.
Literature review on potential sound producing structures in the prepupae of osmiine bee species other than Hoplitis tridentata
Data type: species data